NATURE STUDY 



The Sky: Winter Nights 

A course for busy young people who 
want to get acquainted with the starry 
sky through their own observations 



BY 

LOUISE BROWN 

Special Worker, General Educational Committee 
National Board, Young Womens Christian Associations 



Pamphlet 2 



NEW YORK 
THE WOMANS PRESS 

1920 



f2> 




Copyright, 1920, by 

National Board of the Young Womens Christian Associations 

of the United States of America 

The cost of this pamphlet is underwritten in part by the General 

Education Committee of the National Board of <Q 

Young Womens Christian Associations. r 



FEB lb 1920 

©CI.A559756 



To 
MY COMRADES IN WORK 

whose minds and hearts, like mine, need 
what the stars can give 



/ care not for public opinion, 
So paltry is fame or disgrace, 
But I pray that I'll always be able 
To look all the stars in the face. 

— R. McCann. 



CONTENTS 



Section I 

A Word First 



Section II 

Recognizing a Star 



Section III 

Watching the Sky: Ten Lessons Out-of -Doors 



13 



1. 


Finding North 








16 


2. 


Ten Conspicuous Star Groups 


18 


3. 


Some other Star Groups and Objects of Specia 


L 




Interest ..... 


19 


4. 


From Sunset to Midnight 






23 


5. 


The Waxing Moon 






24 


6. 


The Waning Moon 




. 


25 


7. 


The Milky Way . 






26 


8. 


The Planets . 






27 


9. 


The Winter Sun . 






28 


10. 


The Year Passes. 




• 


30 


Section IV 




Explaining the Sky: Ten Lessons Indoors 




1. 


The Starry Sky ... 


31 


2. 


The Changing Sky 








32 


3. 


The Phases of the Moon 








34 


4. 


A Trip to the Moon 








36 


5. 


Among other Worlds . 








37 


6. 


Our Star: The Sun 








38 


7. 


Our Corner of the Universe 








38 


8. 


The Year Passes . 








40 


9. 


Why Winter? 








42 


10. 


Some Great Astronomers anc 


Thei 


r Discover 


ies 


43 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

Section V 

Test Your Knowledge ....... 44 

Section VI 

Lists of Constellations and Bright Stars .... 50 

Books, Periodicals, Charts ....... 54 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 



SECTION I 

A WORD FIRST 

Have you ever seen the sky on a dark night, far from a 
city, from some open field or from the deck of a steamer, 
where neither lights nor buildings obstructed your view of 
the whole marvellous expanse? Have you found the North- 
ern Cross, the Crown, the red eye of the Bull, and the 
white Dog Star? Have you discovered the secrets of the 
Milky Way and the reason why the new moon holds the old 
moon in her arms? And have you watched the whole sky 
turn, — yes, like a great revolving dome, — carrying the 
crescent moon with the evening star out of sight and bring- 
ing up ever new stars, and in due time the sun? If to you 
has never been given the sight of such a sky, then gather a 
group of your friends and come with me some clear, dark 
night to some open place, where we can forget cities, work 
and care. 

Let us pretend that once only in our lives is to be 
granted to us this revelation of the beauty of a great uni- 
verse. Look from one star to another — how they differ in 
color and brightness ! In some regions they are more 
numerous than in others. Can we count them? Let us 
take a limited area, where they are not too crowded, and 
try. There are really only about three thousand that we 

9 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

can see without a telescope at one time, not millions, as 
some imagine. 

What figures they form — here a triangle, there a square, 
and between a winding row ! Could we make a map ? 
Surely, and name the groups and point them out to others. 
So did other observers, on far distant plains, before the 
glaring lights of cities and indoor habits lost for most 
people all consciousness of the great sky. You will want 
to see the maps made by these early astronomers. 

If this were really our only night, we would shut our 
eyes and then look again, to make sure that the vision had 
become fixed in memory. Fortunately, it is not just once 
in a lifetime that the starlit sky is ours to enjoy. We shall 
want to come again and again, and sometimes all alone, 
until we are at home under the stars. Then when we re- 
turn to walk our human way, which leads quite often 
through city streets, we shall be comforted with glimpses 
of our sky, overhead or between tall buildings. Venus, 
near a distant steeple, in a sunset sky seen from Copley 
Square, is one of my dear memories ; Orion between the 
clouds one winter night from Fifth Avenue is another. 
To know the sky is to find rest in it wherever we go. 

The object of this pamphlet is to help you to gain this 
knowledge through your own observations. What you 
know because you have yourself seen, is more important 
than what you learn from books. But books have their 
uses, and therefore a course of ten lessons is outlined, each 
lesson to follow out-of-door observations. Topics are sug- 

10 



A WORD FIRST 



gested for discussion and references given to books in 
which they are presented simply and clearly. The pam- 
phlet assumes that you have a teacher, but the best 
teacher is one who knows how to teach himself. Conse- 
quently you need not despair if you cannot find a teacher 
of astronomy to take your class. Find someone who wants 
to study the sky with you. Together you may accomplish 
more than with a very learned person who cares neither for 
the sky nor for you. Some of the books referred to are 
low-priced. The more expensive ones can be borrowed 
from a library or purchased by a group for common use. 
The order of the lessons should be adapted to the situation. 
If the class starts when the moon is crescent, the lessons on 
the moon should precede the others. Observations of star 
groups are best made on moonless nights. You may wish 
to combine out-of-door lessons planned for two evenings, 
such as 1 and 2, or take more time for some others. 

You are urged to keep a notebook. Use one with un- 
ruled paper and a durable cover. If you keep watch of 
the sky for years and record your discoveries as in a diary, 
you will have a book of interest to others as well as to your- 
self. I regret that I have not always kept such a book, 
and one for flowers, birds, and insects, too. You will find 
the planet Jupiter in Leo this winter (1920). Next winter 
it will not be there, but in twelve years it will have re- 
turned. If you have kept your notebook all these years, 
you can say: "There is Jupiter back in Leo, just where he 
was twelve years ago, when I was first interested in the 

11 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

sky !" You will recall those first evenings of observation. 
This sort of memory crowds out less desirable ones and 
keeps happy visions in the foreground of our conscious- 
ness. It helps in friendship, too. They are better friends 
who have lived out-of-doors and loved it together. New 
friends also await you there, for all who love Nature are 
bound to one another by strong ties. Watch, and you will 
find that this is true. 



SECTION II 

RECOGNIZING A STAR 

All that I know 

Of a certain star 
Is, it can throw 

(Like the angled spar) 
Now a dart of red, 

Now a dart of blue, 
Till my friends have said 

They would fain see, too, 
My star that dartles the red and the blue! 

—Browning: "My Star." 

Unlike flowers, stars cannot be easily recognized by their 
individual peculiarities. To be sure, they differ widely in 
color and in brightness, and when you know them well, you 
can name the brightest as they appear one by one after 
sunset. If you became acquainted with the stars last 
summer, you will be able to say next August, as the stars 
come out : "That must be Antares low in the southwest ; 
there's Vega, almost overhead; that one in the southeast 
is surely Alt air; let us see if the Cross does not show be- 
tween them." It is always a pleasure to watch the stars 
come out as the sky darkens, to see their colors spark- 
ling — Vega bluish-white, Antares red, Altair yellowish — 
and then to discover the second brightest forming groups — 
a Dipper, a W, an L, perhaps, and fainter ones coming 

13 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

between, until the whole sky is luminous with its "thousand 
eyes." 

"Get acquainted with the stars," you say. "Impossible !" 
So it would be if getting acquainted meant knowing every 
individual star. There are not a great many that you 
will want to know individually. The others you will know 
by the company they keep, for a star is faithful in its 
allegiance to a group. It has no democracy, for it never 
leaves its associates to mingle with others. The stars 
that form the Big Dipper will journey together as long as 
you live to see them.* If you become acquainted with 
twenty star groups this winter, you will know the winter 
sky pretty well ; and every winter all your life you will find 
these stars in your sky, unchanging friends, and if per- 
chance you travel east or west, they will go with you, doing 
their best to heal your homesickness. 

In "Astronomy with the Naked Eye," Garrett Serviss 
says : "If, when we travel into strange lands, the familiar 
stars vanished and new ones took their places, our feeling 
of remoteness from home would become unbearable. We 



* What will happen afterward is another story. The stars that 
form a certain figure as seen from our earth have not necessarily any 
real connection with one another. The figures formed are in a sense 
accidental, and are due to the point in the universe from which we 
observe them and to the particular time at which we make our obser- 
vations. Should we see them from another place in the universe, from 
the Pole Star, for example, or a thousand years hence from the 
earth, we would find the figures much changed. 

See Todd's "New Astronomy," page 430. 

14 



RECOGNIZING A STAR 



should lose confidence in ourselves. It was the friendly 
stars that first led men around the globe. As long as 
those well-known sentinels shone tranquil and steadfast, 
overhead, they had courage to go on. If the stars had 
deserted him, Columbus would have lost heart." I am 
sure that some of our boys in France were comforted by 
the familiar stars gleaming overhead; I am sure, too, that 
they introduced these old friends of theirs in the sky to 
their new friends in camp. 



15 



SECTION III 

WATCHING THE SKY: TEN LESSONS OUT-OF-DOORS 
1. Finding North 

I am as constant as the northern star, 
Of whose true-fix'd and resting quality 
There is no fellow in the firmament. 

— Shakespeare: "Julius Caesar." 

We shall not begin by explaining what we mean by 
north; but if you want some fun, ask the first dozen 
people you meet, what "north" means, and to every reply 
made, ask, "How do you know that?" Very few really 
do know how there comes to be a north and south, but 
before you finish these lessons you will belong to that 
happy group who know something about the sky above 
and therefore understand better this earth ball to which 
we are tethered. However, people who do not really know 
the meaning of north, often know how to find north, — "by 
the Big Dipper, of course,"* they will tell you. So unless 
you already know it, ask someone to point out the seven 
stars which form a figure shaped like a large dipper with 
a bent handle. It is low, with the handle towards the 
horizon in the position shown in Chart 3, at 9 p.m., 
December 1, when perhaps you will be beginning these 



*Not by compass. See any physics text for the action of a compass. 

16 



WATCHING THE SKY 



lessons. It is further to the west in the fall, and to the 
east in the spring; low from September to February, and 
higher in the spring and summer, if observed at the same 
hour, nine in the evening or thereabouts, every time. 

Find the two stars called the "Pointers" in the part of 
the bowl farthest from the handle. Follow the line joining 
them to the first conspicuous star, easily seen, but not 
very bright. This is the first star that you will want 
to know by name, Polaris (Pole Star, or North Star). You 
will find out later why it is given this name. Facing this 
star, you are facing north. Your right hand extended 
points east, your left hand, west. A person with back to 
you faces south. Become familiar with this Dipper; for 
although, as you will discover, its position depends upon 
the time of night and upon the time of year, its pointers 
always show how to find the North Star. 

Write at the top of the first page in your notebook : 

Watching the Sky: Lesson 1, Finding North 

On the next line, write the hour, date, and place of ob- 
servation. Follow this procedure with all the lessons. 
Make a careful diagram of the Dipper. Use a star for 
the brightest stars in the sky, a small cross for the next 
brightest, and a dot for all others. Try to give your 
dipper the same shape as the one in the sky. This is hard 
to do. Are the stars in the Dipper the brightest in the 
sky? Are they all equally bright? Look sharply at the 

17 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

star at the bend of the handle. If you see a faint one 
near it, put it in your diagram in the correct position. 
To see it is a test of a fairly good eye. The two are called 
Horse and Rider, or Old Squaw and Pappoose. Estimate 
how many times the distance between the two Pointers is 
contained in the distance of the North Star from the 
Pointer nearest it. Connect the Pointers in your dia- 
gram with a line, prolong it a little, and indicate by an 
arrowhead the direction of the North Star. Notice that 
the North Star is not exactly, though nearly, in a straight 
line with the Pointers. Put the North Star in your dia- 
gram at the proper distance. Look for the Dipper later 
at night, if you can. You will soon discover how to use 
it as a timepiece.* 

2. Ten Conspicuous Star Groups t 

One might think the atmosphere was made transparent with this 
design, to give man, in the heavenly bodies, the perpetual presence 
of the sublime. Seen in the streets of cities how great they are ! The 
stars at night stoop down over the brownest homeliest common, with 
all the spiritual magnificence which they shed on the Campagna, or 
on the marble deserts of Egypt. — R. W. Emerson: "Nature." 

You will be surprised to find how soon you will feel at 
home with the sky. Become acquainted with ten con- 



* Leave the next page in your notebook blank for further observa- 
tions on the Dipper. Try to find it at the same hour at least once a 
month. Locate the Pointers each time in reference to the North 
Star; as, directly below, below to the right, further to the right, 
directly to the right, etc. Diagrams made at the same hour once a 
month are useful. 

f It is not intended that observations 2 and 3 should be limited to 

18 



WATCHING THE SKY 



spicuous groups, some dark, clear night. (See lists on 
page 49 ff. and the charts in the back of the pamphlet.) 
Learn the names of these groups and make diagrams of 
them that night. Find from page 50 ff. what objects of in- 
terest are in the constellations chosen for this evening and 
find them with the help of the charts. The next clear 
night at the same time look for them from another place, 
and again later at night. Check each in the list given 
as soon as you think you are familiar with it. 

Write the list from memory in your notebook. Record 
the position of each at the time of your observation : high, 
medium, or low; northern, southern, eastern, western, or 
northeastern, etc. A page should be left blank for ob- 
servations added later. When you see any star group 
again, record the fact, with the hour and date, and the 
position at the time. 

3. Some Other Star Groups and Objects 
of Special Interest 

Canst thou bind the sweet influences of the Pleiades or loose the 
bands of Orion?— Job 38:31. 

On this evening, review the stars and star groups 
studied last time. Become familiar with ten more, and 
make a record of your observations as before. Study 



two evenings. Some time should be given to the study of star groups 
every week while the course continues. For those who wish to study 
the constellations in more detail, "A Field Book of the Stars," by 
Wm. T. Olcott, will be found most satisfactory. 

19 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

whatever objects of interest are in the star groups chosen 
for this evening. 

Objects of Special Interest 

Epsilon in Lyra. Chart 1. Best seen in the fall. Near 
Vega in Lyra are two faint stars forming a triangle with 
Vega. The one further north is Epsilon. A very good 
eye can see that it is composed of two stars. If your eye 
cannot split it in two, try an opera glass. With a tele- 
scope each of the two is seen to be double. The two stars 
of each pair revolve around each other, and the two pairs 
around each other also. Think what it would be to have 
four suns in your sky at one time ! Such a star is called 
a quadruple star. 

Algol in Perseus. Chart 4. Best seen in the winter. 
This star is called the "Winking Demon" because it grows 
dim at intervals of nearly three days. It stays at its 
dimmest for about twenty minutes and in a few hours is 
again as bright as before. See if you can catch it in the 
very act. Compare it with the brightest star in the back 
of the L of Perseus. At its best, Algol is brighter. The 
times when Algol is faintest are given in the September 
Evening Sky Map, 1919.* Convenient hours for observa- 
tion are : December 8, 7 : 55 p.m. ; December 28, 9 : 35 p.m. ; 
January 20, 8 : 10 p.m. ; February 9, 9:55 p.m. ; Feb- 
ruary 12, 6: 45 p.m. A large dark star passing partly in 
front of Algol has been found to be the cause of this 



Published by Leon Barritt, 150 Nassau Street, New York r 

20 



WATCHING THE SKY 



change in its brightness. Stars that change in brightness 
are called Variable Stars. 

Double Star Cluster in Perseus. Best seen in the win- 
ter. Look for it in the Milky Way about half way be- 
tween Perseus and Cassiopeia. Examine it with an opera 
glass. The sight of thousands of stars in so small a space 
is a delight not to be missed. 



The Nebula in Andromeda. Best seen in the fall and 
winter. Chart 4 makes it easy to find this object if you 
have already located the two bright stars in Andromeda 
between the Square of Pegasus and the L of Perseus. 
It looks like a hazy patch near two faint stars shown in 
the chart, a disappointing spectacle if one is expecting 
something exciting. But this dim speck is probably the 
biggest thing known to astronomers. One thrills in look- 
ing at it when he realizes that it may be an entire universe 
of stars, comparable in size to our Milky Way, but so far 
from us that its millions of stars present the appearance 
of a very small luminous cloud. The arrangement of 
what may be star clusters in a spiral form is shown in 
photographs of this nebula as seen with a telescope. 
("A Beginner's Star Book," page 20.) 

The Nebula in Orion. Chart 5. Best seen in winter. 
This nebula surrounds the middle star in the sword of 
Orion. It is easy to see with an opera glass that this star 
is hazy. This nebula and the one in Andromeda are the 
only two visible without a telescope. It is not much to 

21 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

see with the unaided eye, but it is a marvellous sight with 
a telescope, an irregular mass of luminous cloud, pearly 
white, with two great wings spreading from a denser cen- 
ter and growing ever dimmer as they fade into the black 
sky around. 

The Pleiades in Taurus. Chart 5. Best seen in winter. 
Almost everyone can see six stars in this cluster, very good 
eyes see seven, and exceptional eyes, eight or ten. There 
are really over two thousand. The Pleiades have a 
unique place in literature for they attract the eyes of even 
casual observers. We are always glad to see them rising 
about eight in the northeast in early October, glittering 
"like fire-flies tangled in a silver braid," as Tennyson de- 
scribes them. The "silver braid" is nebulous matter which 
causes the hazy appearance easily noticed without a glass. 

Praesepe, a Star Cluster in Cancer. Chart 6. Best 
seen in late winter and spring. This cluster is easily seen 
as a hazy patch, without a glass. With a small instru- 
ment over thirty stars are easily counted. When they are 
seen, it is easy to understand why the cluster is called 
"Beehive." ("Astronomy with the Naked Eye," pages 
58-60.) 

The Cluster in Coma Berenices. Chart 7. Best seen 
in the spring. This cluster can be easily found by start- 
ing from Arcturus in the direction of Regulus. It is a 
little less than half way between, nearer Arcturus. It 
forms almost a right-angled triangle with Regulus and 



WATCHING THE SKY 



the star in the end of the handle of the Big Dipper. It is 
a beautiful surprise with the opera glass, for it is a "scat- 
tered" cluster, and its hundreds of stars are easily seen. 
The legend connected with it is interesting. ("A Begin- 
ner's Star Book," page 123.) 

4. From Sunset to Midnight 

Many a night from yonder ivied casement, ere I went to rest, 
Did I look on great Orion sloping slowly to the west. 

— Tennyson: "Locksley Hall." 

This heading does not mean that you are to be out till 
midnight, although if you should be out at that hour, you 
will want to use the opportunity to see what has happened 
in the sky. You can discover what is going to happen, 
if you observe early, at seven perhaps, and again at nine. 
Often in a half hour, if you have a keen eye, you will get 
a clue. Select for this evening's work three bright stars — 
one near the east, another western, and a third southern — 
and several star groups. Notice carefully where each is 
situated in reference to trees, houses, etc. Do not change 
your own position, or if you do, return to where you were 
at first. Make a record in your notebook of the position 
of each star and star group. For instance, one may be 
low in the west to the right of a tree; another, directly 
over a chimney in the east. In a few minutes, certainly 
in a half hour, you will discover that the stars have moved. 
Notice how each has moved, whether up or down, straight 
up, to the right and up, or to the left, etc. Show in your 
diagrams the second position in each case. Watch espe- 

23 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

cially the Big Dipper. Tell where you think the Big 
Dipper will be at three in the morning. No, you need not 
get up to see if you are right, — ask your teacher if your 
prediction is correct. 

The significance of your observations will form the basis 
for discussion in Lesson 2 indoors, page 32. 

5. The Waxing Moon 

Soon as the evening shades prevail, 
The moon takes up the wondrous tale, 
And nightly to the listening earth 
Repeats the story of her birth. 

— Addisox. 

Begin to observe the moon when you first see it, at or 
near sunset. Notice in what part of the sky you find it 
(northern, southern, eastern, or western) and how its 
horns point in reference to the sun. Can you see a small 
oval patch near its outer edge? It is Mare Crisium, or 
"Sea of Conflicts." It is not really a sea, but a large gray 
plain. Draw in your notebook a line for a horizon. Make 
as careful a diagram of the moon as you can, tipped just 
as you see it in reference to the horizon. It is hard to 
make the shape of the moon in your diagram just like that 
of the real moon in the sky. Put in an arrowhead indi- 
cating the direction of the sun and label it "to the sun". 
Many artists make mistakes when they put a crescent 
moon in a picture, either getting its shape wrong or having 
its horns point the wrong way. Poets and novelists often 
put it in the sky at an impossible time or in an impossible 

24 



WATCHING THE SKY 



position. Watch the crescent moon. Is it rising or set- 
ting? Could you see it at midnight? Is it ever in the 
east at sunset? 

Watch it from night to night as it waxes. Sketch it 
frequently and record where you see it and the time in 
each case. When it is full, try to make a good diagram 
showing the gray areas. Compare your diagram with the 
one in McKready's "A Beginner's Star Book," page 70, or 
in Serviss' "Astronomy with the Naked Eye," page 226. 
Name the areas in your diagram. 

What we can see on the moon without a telescope : 

Mare Crisium Sea of Conflicts 

Mare Fecunditatis Sea of Fecundity 

Mare Nectaris Sea of Nectar 

Mare Tranquillitatis Sea of Tranquillity 

Mare Serenitatis Sea of Serenity 

Mare Imbrium Sea of Showers 

Mare Procellarum Sea of Storms 

Mare Nubium Sea of Clouds 

Lessons 3 and 4, pages 34 and 36, should follow these 
observations. 

6. The Waning Moon 

There is a region on the moon named Mare Serenitatis. On this 
earth, also, for those who search, there are seas of serenity. Camp 
out on their shores, come what will. — Ellex Hayes: "Letters to a 
College Girl." 

Where is the moon when it is not in the sky at sunset? 
Look for it in the evening. Sketch it and record its posi- 

25 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

tion. Is it rising or setting? Which side is disappear- 
ing, eastern or western? Is this the side you saw or did 
not see when it was waxing? Look for it again in the 
morning before breakfast or as soon after as possible. 
Explain the change in its position. Look for it mornings 
as often as possible. When it is a waning crescent, is it 
seen in the morning or evening? In the east or west? 
Rising or setting? If a crescent moon is seen in the morn- 
ing before sunrise, why can it not be seen again after sun- 
set? If a crescent moon is seen in the evening after sun- 
set, why can it not be seen again the next morning before 
sunrise? 

7. The Milky Way 

A broad and ample road, whose dust is gold 
And pavement stars, as stars to thee appear, — 
Seen in the Galaxy, that Milky Way 
Which nightly, as a circling zone, thou seest 
Powdered with stars. 

— Miltox: "Paradise Lost." 

I cannot too strongly urge, even upon the naked-eye observer, the 
utility and charm of studying the Milky Way in detail. No more 
delightful occupation can be imagined for a summer's night, when 
the moon is absent, when the heavens are clear and serene, and when 
the observer finds himself at a distance from the smoke and blaze of 
towns and cities. It is useless to try to see the Milky Way where 
the atmosphere is impure and the air filled with the diffused light of 
electric lamps. It is one of Nature's phenomena which she exhibits 
in full glory only to those who love to be alone with her. — Garrett P. 
Serviss: "Astronomy with the Naked Eye." 

The Milky Way attracts attention more in the summer 
and fall than at any other time, although some part of it 

26 



WATCHING THE SKY 



is always in the sky. Watch it and see if you can dis- 
cover why. Make a record of your observations in your 
notebook, and leave a page for spring and summer obser- 
vations. 

1. Through what constellations does it pass? Watch 
it to see if it stays in these constellations. 

2. Describe its position in the sky. From what part 
to what part of the horizon does it extend? Does it pass 
overhead or nearly overhead, or does it skirt the horizon? 
Be sure to give date and hour of this observation. 

3. Is it equally wide? Equally luminous? Are there 
dark places in it ? 

4. What bright stars are near it? 

5. Use opera glasses in examining it. Of what is it 
composed. Look especially in the constellation Perseus. 

Use this evening also for a review of all the constella- 
tions and bright stars. 

8. The Planets 

"We discover ourselves upon a planet, itself almost imperceptible 
in the vast extent of the solar system, which in its turn is an insensible 
point in the immensity of space. The sublime results to which this 
discovery has led should suffice to console us for our extreme little- 
ness, and the rank which it assigns to the earth. Let us treasure with 
solicitude, let us add to it as we may, this store of higher knowledge, 
the most exquisite treasure of thinking beings. — Laplace: "Mecanique 
Celeste." 

Jupiter and Saturn will be well placed for observations 
in February. 1920. and throughout the spring, in the 

27 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

constellation Leo. Mars will be in Virgo during the 
spring and early summer months of 1920, and can there- 
fore be best studied from April to August. Notice the 
position of each planet in reference to the stars near. 
Make a careful diagram in your notebook, indicating the 
position of the planet by a circle instead of by the symbol 
you are using for a star. Write the name of planet, hour 
and date beside the circle. Look for each planet at least 
once a week, and compare its position among the stars 
with its position when you first observed it, as shown in 
your diagram. Put another circle and date in the dia- 
gram whenever you think that there has been a con- 
spicuous change. In this way you will find out for your- 
selves how people first distinguished planets from stars. 
This discovery was made so long ago that we have no way 
of knowing when or by whom. The real nature of planets 
could not be known, however, until the invention of the 
telescope in the first part of the seventeenth century. 

See Lessons 5 aiid 7, pages 37 and 38. 

For the position of the planets from month to month, 
consult McKready's "A Beginner's Star Book," page 84- 
90, or "The Monthly Evening Sky Map." 

9. The Winter Sun 

The sun that brief December day 
Rose cheerless over hills of gray. 

— Whittier: "Snow Bound." 

Some weeks ago we found north by the stars. But the 
stars do not help us in the daytime. Can the sun be used? 

28 



WATCHING THE SKY 



Yes, someone says : "East is where it rises ; west is where 
it sets." Not so fast, — let us watch. Find an open place 
where you can leave a rod undisturbed (a post or a 
straight cane can be used), where you can see the sun soon 
after it has risen and also near sunset. Some night when 
the North Star shows well, put this rod on the ground 
in approximately a north and south position just as you 
stand when you face north. Take a second rod with a 
pointed end and hammer it firmly into the ground at one 
end of the first rod. Another rod on the ground at right 
angles to the first, to indicate east and west, will be useful. 
Some clear day as near sunrise as possible, watch the 
shadow of the upright rod. If the shadow falls west, the 
sun is east; if, on the other hand, it falls south of west, 
the sun is north of east. Thus by the direction of the 
shadow, the position of the sun is known. Watch the 
shadows also at noon and near sunset. 

Observations should be repeated once a month for a 
year, and December is a good month in which to begin. 
Keep a record in your notebook of the hour, date, direction 
of shadow, and your inference concerning the position of 
the sun. Observations should be made as near sunrise 
and sunset as practicable. Another and more accurate 
method is to locate the sun as it rises and sets by some 
object on the horizon. If you return to the same place 
for your observation each time, you will soon see that it 
is a bad mistake to say that the sun "rises in the east and 
sets in the west." 

29 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

Notice what windows receive the early morning sun in 
summer; in winter. Which is the sunny side of a house, 
the northern or the southern? Why? When are the 
shadows shortest at noon? Why? 

See Lessons 8 and 9, pages 40 and 42, and Todd's "New 
Astronomy," pages 148, 149. 

10. The Year Passes 

Daughters of Time, the hypocritic Days, 

Muffled and dumb like barefoot dervishes, 

And marching single in an endless file, 

Bring diadems and fagots in their hands. 

To each they offer gifts after his will, 

Bread, kingdoms, stars, and sky that holds them all. 

— Emerson: "Days." 

If you have been observing the sky for a month or more, 
you have probably noticed that the stars near the eastern 
horizon are not the same as those you saw at the same 
hour when you began. Make in your notebook a list of 
the constellations and bright stars now visible at what- 
ever hour you have chosen for observation. Record the 
position of each. Which that you saw before cannot now 
be seen? What new ones have appeared? How has the 
position of the Big Dipper changed? Continue to record 
the positions of the new constellations } r ou observe as the 
year passes. Check them in the list on page 50 ff. as you 
become familiar with them. 



30 



SECTION IV 

EXPLAINING THE SKY: TEN LESSONS INDOORS 

1. The Starry Sky 

The course has already begun out-of-doors, on the top 
of a house, on a bridge, in a vacant lot or a back yard, — 
any place where the sky is well seen. It is well to return 
to the same place at the same hour for the first few lessons, 
and then to change. It is important to recognize the stars 
from different positions. A student often knows the stars 
from the place where the class has been meeting, but can- 
not find them from his own home. Remember that the 
value of the course lies more in what is seen than in what 
is read in a book or told in a lecture. Remember, too, that 
with a little guidance many can think out an explanation 
of what is seen, — the rising and setting of stars, the chang- 
ing shape of the moon, etc., and this is more fun and of 
more value than listening to a learned explanation from 
a teacher. A list of topics and references is given for each 
lesson. To save the expense of purchasing many books, 
the references are taken from only a few. Doubtless other 
books will prove just as useful, if the ones mentioned are 
not available. The questions on pages 45 ff. will naturally 
be answered during these indoor lessons. More topics are 
probably suggested in many lessons than can be taken up 

31 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

profitably in one evening. This is done to give oppor- 
tunity either for a choice of topics or for a longer course. 
It is much better to present a few points clearly, with 
time for questions, than to try to handle a large number. 

Topics for the first lesson: 

Maps of the sky: how anyone can make one; the 
earliest astronomers ; star groups and constella- 
tions. 

Myths connected with the constellations. 

Facts of interest about the brightest stars. 

The number, color, real nature of stars. 

References : 

Todd: "New Astronomy," Chapter XVI. 

Ball: "Starland," Lecture VI. 

Serviss : "Astronomy with the Naked Eye," Chapters 

I, II, XIII. 
McKready : "A Beginner's Star Book," Night Charts 

and Observer's Catalogue, pages 138-161, and 116- 

136. 
"The Monthly Evening Sky Map," for the month in 

which these lessons are begun. 

2. The Changing Sky 

This lesson should follow observation 4. "The North 
Star Finder" (ten cents, from Leon Barritt, 150 Nassau 
Street, New York City) is useful for this lesson. Each 
member of the class may like to own one. Copy from this 

32 



EXPLAINING THE SKY 



finder, the Big Dipper, the Little Dipper, and the W from 
Cassiopeia on a large sheet of cardboard. Use a large 
scale and make the stars very black so that all can see. 
After a discussion of the observations the class has already 
made, show by the use of this chart, pivoting it at the 
North Star and rotating it about the pivot, how these 
groups change their positions relative to the horizon dur- 
ing twenty-four hours. Ask some member of the class to 
place it in the correct position for 7 p.m., 1 a.m., 7 a.m. 
Explain how the motion of a star can be photographed 
accurately (Todd: "New Astronomy," page 33). Ex- 
plain "Star Trails" (McKready, page 94). As these ap- 
pear in many celestial photographs, they should be well 
understood. 

Notice that the stars do not move around the North 
Star, but around a point near it, the celestial North Pole. 
The North Star is two moons' breadth distant from the 
pole and revolves around it in a small circle, an arc of 
which is shown in the photograph in Todd. The quotation 
from Shakespeare, page 16, illustrates, therefore, a mis- 
take often made concerning the fixed quality of this star. 
Emphasize the fact that the stars are in the sky in the day- 
time, as is proved by an eclipse of the moon. Show how 
the apparent twenty-four-hour motion of the whole sky, 
carrying not only stars, but the sun, the moon, the planets, 
and comets across from east to west is explained by the 
real motion of the earth from west to east. This is the 
chief point of the lesson and the most difficult. The mean- 

33 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

ing of north should be discussed at this time, and attention 
called to the fact that the compass does not point to the 
geographical North Pole but to the magnetic pole. 

References : 

"Starland," pages 46-56. 
"New Astronomy," pages 97-100. 
"Pioneers of Science," Chapter I. 
Any text in Physics, for the compass. 

3. The Phases of the Moon 

The class by this time has watched the waxing moon 
and noticed that the lighted part is always turned towards 
the sun. The gray areas, "maria" have been seen. 
Show photographs of the moon as seen through the tele- 
scope ("A Beginner's Star Book," pages 73-80). Call 
attention to the shadows of the crater walls, longest when 
the sun is shining most obliquely, and disappearing when 
the sun is shining directly into the crater. (Compare nos. 
30, 31, 32, on pages 75, 77, and 80.) The maria do not 
thus change and are therefore not shadows. Lunar 
mountains and craters with their shadows are not seen 
without a telescope. What are the maria? Show photo- 
graphs of them as seen with a telescope. These photo- 
graphs of dark gray plains (lava perhaps ?), luminous 
mountains and crater walls with shadows always opposite 
the sun, prove that the moon is an earthy body. Why 
then does it shine like a dim sun ? The fact that its lighted 

34 



EXPLAINING THE SKY 



part is always turned sunward leads us to look to the sun 
for its source of light. No one who watches the moon 
with a telescope can believe that it produces any light of 
its own. 

The following experiment shows how easily the chang- 
ing shape of the moon is explained when we discover that 
all its brilliancy is due to the light it reflects to us from 
the sun. 

The room should be dark except for one light, prefer- 
ably electric. Each member of the class in turn holds a 
tennis ball or an ivory ball between herself and the light, 
a little above the light, so as not to eclipse it. The light 
is the sun, the ball is the moon, and she herself, an ob- 
server on the earth. In this position none of the lighted 
part of the ball can be seen. (The moon is not visible in 
this position day or night.) As she moves the ball around 
her, keeping her eye on it, it will exhibit all the phases of 
the moon — crescent ; half, when a quarter of the way 
around; three quarters; full, when opposite; waning to 
crescent again. Notice that the moon, to be full like the 
ball, must be opposite the sun, but above or below the 
shadow of the earth to avoid eclipse; otherwise we should 
not see all of its illumined part ; and so it is, rising as 
the sun sets, and setting as the sun rises. Likewise the 
crescent must be in nearly the same direction as the sun 
to show us just a little of its illumined surface. There- 
fore it is always in the west at sunset or in the east at 
sunrise. 

35 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

The next time the moon is crescent, think of the whole 
moon and the more distant sun. Just a little of the part 
turned earthwards is in the sunshine. The rest is dark 
except where the sun-lighted earth reflects light back to 
the moon. Then we see the "old moon in the new moon's 
arms." This phenomenon is called "earth-shine" because 
if we were on that part of the moon, the earth would illu- 
mine the landscape quite effectively. When the moon is 
full again, imagine the sun on the opposite side of the 
earth from the moon, its light streaming far beyond the 
earth and illumining the whole of the side of the moon 
facing the earth. Although it is night for us, it is about 
noon on Mare Serenitatis. 

References : 

"Starland," pages 74-79. 

"New Astronomy," pages 74-79. 

Any text in Physics, on Vision. 

4. A Trip to the Moon 

Some member of the class can prepare a talk on this 
subject. Eclipses of the moon and legends connected with 
the moon are good topics to take up the same evening. 

References : 

"New Astronomy," pages 243-254, and Chapter XII. 
"Starland," Lecture II. 
"Astronomy with the Naked Eye," XVIII. 
"A Trip to the Moon," a pamphlet published by The 
Womans Press, New York. 
36 



EXPLAINING THE SKY 



5. Among Other Worlds 

Jupiter and Saturn will both be in Leo in 1920 and can 
therefore be observed to best advantage, evenings in Feb- 
ruary and throughout the spring. Mars in Virgo can be 
seen in April and May. Mars is more interesting to watch 
than Jupiter or Saturn, because of its more rapid change 
of position with respect to the neighboring stars, but the 
change in the position of Jupiter can be easily noticed in 
a week. Some who were in camp last July may remember 
that Saturn and Venus were in Leo then, very close 
together in the western sky at sunset on the second of 
July. Perhaps they saw how rapidly Venus passed 
Saturn, until by the end of the month Venus was near the 
tail of the Lion, while the more slowly moving Saturn was 
still near the head. They will see how these bright "mov- 
ing stars" must have attracted attention very early. If 
there is time this evening, the experiment to explain the 
motions of planets, described in Lesson 8, may be made, 
although it belongs more naturally after Lesson 7. 

Topics for this evening: 

The First Planets Discovered. 

How the Telescope Enables Us to Tell the Real Na- 
ture of a Planet. 
Is Mars Inhabited? 

The Discovery of Uranus and Neptune. 
The Origin of the Days of the Week. 

37 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

References : 

"Starland," except the Chapter on Mars. 

"Mars," Percival Lowell. 

"A Beginner's Star Book," pages 17-22. 

6. Our Star: The Sun 

Topics for this evening : 
Distance of the Sun. 
Size. 

Appearance through a Telescope. 
Appearance when Eclipsed. 
Conclusions as to its Structure. 
Causes of its Heat and Light. 
Its Past and Future. 

References : 

"A Beginner's Star Book," pages 62-68. 
"New Astronomy," Chapter XL 
"Starland," pages 1-46. 

7. Our Corner of the Universe 

Charts similar to those given in "Starland," page 139, 
and in "New Astronomy," page 335, help to make real 
the facts concerning the relative sizes of the planets and 
the sun. Emphasis should be laid on the nearness of the 
planets compared with the stars, and on the isolation of 
our solar system, our sun being only a small star, one 

38 



EXPLAINING THE SKY 



among millions inconceivably distant from it. Neither is 
this isolation unique. Each star, itself a sun, perhaps 
with attendant planets, is as remote from the stars appar- 
ently near it as our sun from its neighboring stars. For 
exceptions, double stars, etc., see "New Astronomy," 
pages 451-457. The table below may help to make these 
facts impressive. 

Time required, traveling one mile a minute, to reach 



The Moon 

Venus, when nearest, 

Mars, when nearest, 

The Sun 

Neptune 

The nearest star 



between 5 and 6 months 
50 years 
66 years 
ITT years 
5000 years 
4T.000.000 years 



Time required, traveling with the speed of light, or 
about 11.000.000 miles a minute, to reach 



The Moon 

Venus 

The Sun 

Neptune 

The nearest star 

Sirius 

The Pole Star 

Rigel 



between land 2 seconds 
about 2 minutes 
about 8 minutes 
about 4 hours 
4.3 years 
8.T years 
69.4 years 
466 vears 



Topics for this evening: 

A description of our Corner of the Universe, as seen 

39 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

from a point above the Solar System. See sug- 
gestions above. 

Comets and Meteors. 

Other Corners of the Universe: Star Clusters, Neb- 
ulae. 

The Past and Future of our Sun and its Worlds. 

References : 

"Starland," Lecture V. 

"New Astronomy," page 288, pages 460-472. 

8. The Year Passes 

Experiment to show why we see different stars at differ- 
ent times of the year: 

Use a gymnasium or a large room for this exercise. 
Place a light in the center of the room for the sun. Girls 
standing near the walls around the room are stars. One 
girl, representing the earth, stands near the sun and re- 
volves around it, stopping at frequent intervals to call 
attention to her observations. When her face is toward 
the sun, she is having day, and the stars back of the sun 
and near it cannot be seen. As she turns on an axis, the 
sun disappears ; she has night and sees the stars toward 
which her face is turned. If she remains in this position, 
she will see the same stars every night. Let us suppose 
that these are the stars she sees in winter. Revolving half 
way around the sun, when her face is turned sunwards, 
she is also facing the stars she saw at night when in her 

40 



EXPLAINING THE SKY 



first position, but now the sun hides these stars. Remain- 
ing in this place and turning her back on the sun, she sees 
the stars that she could not see at first, the stars of sum- 
mer. Thus as she revolves around the sun, rotating also, 
the stars seen at night continually change, except those 
in the direction of the axis on which she rotates, — on the 
ceiling in this illustration, in reality near the North Pole 
of the sky. 

Experiment to show why the planets seem to move as 
they do among the stars: 

Place a light in the center of the room for the sun and 
let girls near the walls represent the stars. A girl stand- 
ing near the sun is the Earth, and one a little further 
away is Jupiter or Mars. Both revolve around the sun, 
the more distant one faster. The Earth observes the 
planet against the background of stars and reports from 
time to time what stars it looks to be near, calling them by 
name. It will soon be discovered that when the earth 
comes between the sun and the planet, the planet will seem 
to have moved backwards among the stars, i.e., opposite to 
its real motion. Notice that this retrograde motion occurs 
when the planet is opposite the sun, and is, therefore, rising 
as the sun sets. This was the case with both Jupiter and 
Mars, while the class was watching them, and the diagrams 
made at the time should show the fact; the planets were 
seen further west from night to night, in reference to the 
stars. Later they were seen further east, for when the 
planet is not opposite or nearly opposite the sun, it moves 

41 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

among the stars in the same direction as its real direction 
of motion, as the experiment shows. In a similar way the 
motion of Venus can be studied. The girl representing 
Venus stands nearer the sun than the earth and moves 
faster. Venus will be seen near the sun, then further and 
further from the sun, lost behind the sun, reappearing on 
the other side, etc. Thus the fact that Venus may be seen 
first as an evening star, and later as a morning star, can 
be understood. 

References : 

"Starland," pages 160-166. 
"Pioneers of Science," pages 18-26. 
"New Astronomy," pages 311-322. 

9. Why Winter? 

Discuss first, observations everyone can make during 
the year : the varying length of day and night ; the changes 
in the lengths of noon shadows and the conclusion that the 
sun is higher at noon in summer than in winter ; the north 
and south motion of the sun, — the sun rising north of east 
in summer, and south of east in winter. Show by diagrams 
how the tipping of the northern end of the axis toward 
the sun makes the sun higher, and tipping it away makes 
the sun lower. Show, by using an apple with a knitting 
needle through it for an axis, how the earth with its axis 
always tipped towards the plane in which it moves, by 
revolving around the sun, presents alternately its north- 

42 



EXPLAINING THE SKY 



ern pole towards the sun, and away from it, and in inter- 
mediate positions neither towards nor away. A diagram 
of the earth with its axis tipped towards the sun, and the 
sunward-turned side colored yellow, the other half black, 
makes clear the fact that days must be longer in the 
northern hemisphere than the nights as a result, if the 
day and night swing of a point in or about our latitude is 
marked on the diagram, and the earth in this position is 
imagined rotating. Other diagrams show why a high sun is 
a hot sun, and the fact that the days are longer when the 
sun is higher, and shorter when the sun is lower, explains 
the heat of summer and the cold of winter. Someone in 
the class has probably thought that we are nearest the sun 
in summer ; hence the heat. The fact that careful measure- 
ments of the apparent diameter of the sun show that it is 
the largest, and hence nearest to us, in January, and 
smallest, and hence furthest from us, in July, will be a 
surprise to many. 

References : 

"New Astronomy,*' pages 146-157, 159-166. 
"Starland," pages 56-74. 

10. Some Great Astronomers and Their Discoveries 

Topics for this evening : 
The Telescope. 
The Life of Galileo. 

43 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

The Life and Work of the Herschels. 

The Great Discovery of Sir Isaac Newton. 

How We Discover what Stars are Made of. 

References : 

"Pioneers of Science," Lectures IV, V, VI, VIII, XII. 

"Starland," pages 347-353. 

"The Book of Stars," Chapters IX, XII. 



44 



SECTION V 

A REVIEW 

Test Your Knowledge 

He who knows the most, he who knows what sweets and virtues 
are in the ground, the waters, the planets, the heavens, and how to 
come at these enchantments, is the rich and royal man. 

— Emerson : "Nature." 

1. Name as many stars as you can. In what season 
is each best seen in the early evening? 

2. Name as many star groups as you can. In what 
season is each best seen? 

3. Name four star groups that can be seen all the 
year in the latitude of New York. 

4. What is the difference between a star group and 
a constellation? Illustrate. 

5. Name a red star; a yellow star; a white star. 

6. What is a star? How do we know what it is? 

7. How is the North Star found? Explain Shake- 
speare's reference to its "true-fixed and resting quality." 
Is it fixed? 

8. Of what use has the North Star been in history? 
See the "Monthly Evening Star Map" for September, 
1919, and "Astronomy with the Naked Eye," pages 95- 

45 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

98. Do you know any references to it in literature be- 
sides the one given? 

9. What are the Pleiades? Explain the reference to 
them in Tennyson's Locksley Hall, quoted on page 23. 

10. What is the Milky Way? Describe its position 
at the time of observation and name the constellations 
through which it passed. In what month and at what hour 
was your observation made? 

11. What changes occur in the sky from sunset to 
midnight? How do you explain them? 

12. Why is it important to give the hour as well as 
the date of any observation? 

13. Name two nebulae that can be seen without a tele- 
scope. What do they look like? What do they look like 
through a telescope? What are they? 

14. What is a new star? A double star? A star 
cluster? A variable star? 

15. How can a planet be distinguished from a star 
without a telescope? With a telescope? 

16. Name the planets in order of their distance from 
the sun, the nearest first ; in order of their size, the largest 
first. 

17. Describe the appearance of each planet with and 
without a telescope. 

18. What is an evening star? A morning star? 

19. What is a planet? A moon? How many moons 
has each planet? 

46 



TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 



20. Discuss the possibility of life on Venus ; on Mars. 

21. Why could we not live on Mercury; on Neptune; 
on Jupiter? 

22. What planets have you seen this winter? In what 
constellations ? 

23. Why is Venus seen only in the west at sunset or 
in the east at sunrise, never in the east at sunset or in the 
west at sunrise? 

24. Why is Venus never an evening and a morning star 
the same day? 

25. Where do you look for a crescent moon at sunset? 

26. In what direction are its horns turned? Explain. 

27. Why does the moon change its shape? 

28. What is wrong with this passage by Coleridge? 

The sun's rim dips; the stars rush out: 
At one stride comes the dark; 

The stars were dim and thick the night, 

The steersman's face by his lamp gleamed white ; 

From the sails the dew did drip — 

Till clombe above the eastern bar 

The horned Moon, with one bright star 

Within the nether tip. 

— "The Ancient Mariner." 

29. Where do you look for the full moon at sunset? 
Why? Where is it at midnight? 

30. What is the correct name of the markings on the 
moon which people fancifully call "The Man in the Moon"? 

47 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 

What are they? How do we know that they are not 
shadows ? 

31. How do we know that the moon is an earthy body, 
shining only because it reflects sunlight? 

32. What is a waxing moon? A waning moon? When 
and where do you look for the moon when it is waxing 
three quarters? A waxing half ? A waxing crescent? A 
waning crescent? A waning three quarters? A waning 
half? 

33. Where is the moon when we cannot see it? 

34. Why do we never see the back of the moon? 

35. How do we know that the moon is further from us 
than clouds? Nearer than stars? Nearer than the sun? 

36. Describe the experiences you would have if you 
should visit the moon. 

37. What causes an eclipse of the moon? 

38. What causes an eclipse of the sun? Of what value 
is it to astronomers? 

39. What are sun-spots? 

40. What makes the sun hot? 

41. Why do we not see the same stars winter and 
summer evenings? 

42. Why do we see some stars all the year? 

43. Are we nearer the sun in summer or in winter? 
How do we tell ? 

44. Why is the sun higher at noon in summer than in 
winter ? 

48 



TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE 



45. Why does it rise north of east and set north of 
west in summer; and rise south of east and set south of 
west in winter? 

46. How can north, south, east, and west be deter- 
mined from shadows at noon? In what direction do 
shadows fall in the early morning in winter? In summer? 
In the late afternoon in each case? 

47. Why is the sun hotter when it is higher? (Two 
reasons.) 

48. Why are summer days longer than winter days ? 

49. Explain fully why we have winter and summer. 

50. What were the first discoveries made with a tele- 
scope? When? By whom? Tell what you can of the 
life and work of any astronomers you have studied. 



49 



SECTION VI 

LISTS OF CONSTELLATIONS AND BRIGHT STARS 



Twenty Star Groups visible in North Temperate lati- 
tudes between 8 and 10 p.m., October 
and November 



Description of Figure 

Big Dipper 

Little Dipper 

A large W 

Quadrilateral and a wind- 
ing row 

Triangle with one bright 
star 

Cross 

Line of three, middle one 
brightest 

A large L 

Line of two between L and 
square 

Almost a square 

Semi-circle 

Butterfly 
Diamond 



Name of ConsteUation 
Ursa Major (Big Bear) 
Ursa Minor (Little Bear) 
Cassiopeia (Queen) 

Draco (Dragon) 

Lyra (Lyre) 
Cygnus (Swan) 

Aquila (Eagle) 
Perseus (Hero) 

Andromeda (Maiden) 
Pegasus (Winged Horse) 
Corona Bore alls 

(Northern Crown) 
Hercules (Hero) 
Delphinus (Job's Coffin) 
50 



CONSTELLATIONS AND BRIGHT STARS 



Description of Figure 
Two stars close together 

and large V 
A Y of faint stars 
One lone bright star in the 

south 

Small five-sided figure of 
faint stars 

Triangle of faint stars be- 
low Andromeda 

Triangle of two fairly 
bright stars and one 
faint star below Trian- 
gulum 

Five-sided figure 



Name of Constellation 

Capricornus (Goat) 
Aquarius (Water Bearer) 

Piscis Australis 
(Southern Fish) 

Pisces (Fish) 

Triangulum (Triangle) 



Aries (Ram) 

Auriga (Charioteer) 



Name of Constellation 



December and January 

Describe in list for October and November: Ursa 
Major, Ursa Minor, Cassiopeia, Draco, Cygnus, Perseus, 
Andromeda, Pegasus, Delphinus, Pisces, Triangulum, 
Aries, Auriga, and in addition: 

Description of Figure 
Bright stars outlining form 

of a man 
A V-shaped group with one 
very bright star, and a 
star cluster (The Pleia- 
des) 



Orion (Hunter) 



Taurus (Bull) 

51 



THE SKY: WINTER NIGHTS 



Description of Figure 
One line of bright stars, 

two lines of faint stars 

almost parallel to this 
One very bright star, with 

conspicuous group of 

five below 
One very bright star, with 

faint one near 
Butterfly of faint stars 
Four-sided figure 



Name of Constellation 



Gemini (Twins) 



Canis Major (Big Dog) 

Cants Minor (Little Dog) 
Lepus (Hare) 
Cetus (Whale) 



February and March 

Described in previous lists : Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, 
Cassiopeia, Draco, Perseus, Andromeda, Triangulum, 
Aries, Auriga, Orion, Taurus, Gemini, Canis Major, Canis 
Minor, Lepus, and in addition : 

Description of Figure 
Two faint stars and a star 

cluster 
Sickle and Triangle 
Small five-sided figure of 

faint stars and winding 

row 



Name of Constellation 



Cancer (Crab) 
Leo (Lion) 



Loose star cluster 

Kite, with one very bright 
star 



Hydra 

(Many-headed Monster) 
Coma Berenices 

(Hair of Berenice) 

Bootes (Herdsman) 

52 



CONSTELLATIONS AND BRIGHT STARS 



Bright Stars Visible Between 8 and 10 p.m. 


Name of Star 


Constellation 


Best Seen 


Vega 


Lyra 


Summer and Fall 


Deneb 


Cygnus 


Summer and Fall 


Alt air 


Aquila 


Summer and Fall 


Fomalhaut 


Piscis Australis 


Fall 


Capella 


Auriga 


Winter 


Rigel 


Orion 


Winter 


Betelgeuze 


Orion 


Winter 


Aldebaran 


Taurus 


Winter 


Sirius 


Canis Major 


Winter 


Procyon 


Canis Minor 


Winter 


Castor 


Gemini 


Winter and Spring 


Pollux 


Gemini 


Winter and Spring 


Regulus 


Leo 


Spring 


Arc turns 


Bootes 


Spring and Summer 


Spica 


Virgo 


Spring and Summer 


Ant ares 


Scorpio 


Summer 



53 



BOOKS, PERIODICALS, CHARTS 

"The Monthly Evening Star Map." Leon Barritt, 

Editor and Publisher, 150 Nassau St., New York. 

$1.00 per year, 10 cents per copy. 
"A Field Book of the Stars." Wm. T. Olcott. G. P. 

Putnam's Sons. $1.25. 
"Astronomy with the Naked Eye." Garrett P. Serviss. 

Harper Brothers. $1.50. 
"A Beginner's Star Book." Kelvin McKready. G. P. 

Putnam's Sons. $3.50. 
"A New Astronomy." David Todd. American Book 

Company. $1.56. 
"Starland," Sir Robert Ball. Ginn & Company. $1.20. 
"Pioneers of Science." Oliver Lodge. Macmillan Co. 

$2.00. 
"Star Lore of the Ages. William Tyler Olcott. G. P. 

Putnam's Sons. $3.50. 
"The Book of Stars." A. Frederick Collins. 

D. Appleton Co. $1.25. 
"The Friendly Stars." Martha Evans Martin. Har- 
per Bros. $1.25. 
"Northern Constellations, showing Mythological Fig- 
ures." A Cardboard Map. Leon Barritt, 150 

Nassau St., New York. 25 cents. 
"The Dipper as a Guide to the First Magnitude Stars." 

A Cardboard Map. Leon Barritt, 150 Nassau St., 

New York. 25 cents. 
"A Trip to the Moon," a pamphlet. Louise Brown. 
The Womans Press, 600 Lexington Ave., New York. 

54 



Deneb 



The Cross 

in 

Cygnus 




Altair 
In 

Aquila 



Hercules 




Capricomus 



Facing West, November 1, 9 P.M. 
Chart 1 



The Great Square 
of 

Pegasus 




i 



Aquarius 




CapricQrnus 



Fomalhaut 

Facing Southwest, November 1, 9 P.M. 

Showing how to find Fomalhaut, the lone southern star 

"Flaming above the southern horizon on a chilly autumn night, it 
attracts a degree of attention that would not be paid it if it occupied 
a place in some richer region of the sky. It is like a distant watch- 
fire, gleaming in the midst of a lonely prairie." — Garrett Serviss. 

Chart 2 




The W 

in 

Cassiopeia 



The North Star 

The Little Dipper 

in 

Ursa Minor 




The Pointers 



The Big Dipper 
in 

Ursa Major 



Facing North, December 1, 9 P.M. 
Cassiopeia almost overhead 

Chart 3 



OVERHEAD 



. Nebula 




Cetus 




Facing South and Southwest, December 1, 9 P.M. 

Perseus and Andromeda almost overhead 

or 

Facing South and Southeast, November 1, 9 P.M. 



Chart 4 



Capella 

in 

Auriga 



Castor 



/ 



Gemini 



Pollux 



Procyon 

in 

Canis Minor 



Betelgeuze 



Pleiades 




Aldebaran 
in 

Taurus 



Orion 



Rigel 



Sirius 
in 

Canis Major 




Lepus 



Facing Southeast, January 1, 9 P.M. 

Capella almost overhead; eight brilliant stars 

or 

Facing Southeast and East December 1, 9 P.M. 



Chart 5 




Heart of Hydra 



Facing Southeast February 1, 9 P.M. 
Chart 6 



# Castor 
Pollux 



Procyo 



Cluster •• 

in 

Coma Berenices 



Bootes 




Arc turns 




Facing East March 15, 9 P.M. 
Chart 7 




Corvus 



